The swift to more sustainable and carbon-free energy sources has risen the demand for metals and critical minerals. The decarbonization and the expansion of renewable energy technologies like wind turbines and solar panels, as well as electric vehicles, requires significant quantities of metals like cobalt, nickel, and rare earth elements It is estimated that their global may double by 2040 if the net-zero emissions is achieved. The increasing demand for minerals has prompted arguments in favor of deep-sea mining.
Deep-sea mining: an introduction
Deep-sea mining seeks to extract valuable mineral resources located on the ocean floor, often at depths of several hundred to several thousand meters. These regions, contain substantial reserves of copper, cobalt, nickel, zinc, silver, gold, and rare earth elements. In the deep ocean, such minerals are primarily found in slow-growing, potato-sized polymetallic nodules, in polymetallic sulfides formed around hydrothermal vents, and in metal-rich crusts that accumulate on underwater seamounts. The Clarion–Clipperton zone (CCZ) alone contains over 21 billion metric tons of these nodules.
Although small-scale exploratory mining has been conducted to test equipment, commercial deep-sea mining has not yet begun. Some nations have granted permits to investigate mineral resources within their exclusive economic zones (EEZs), but the majority of interest in deep-sea mining is focused on international waters.
Concerns and risks
While the thought of satisfying the increasing demand for metals may sound appealing, scientists and experts worry about the risks and effects of deep-sea mining-and the potential of being irreversible.
Firstly, the deep sea, once thought to be devoid of life, is one of the largest habitable space on earth, where species with unique characteristics thrive, such as resistance to high pressure and lack of sunlight. It is estimated that 0.001% of the deep sea floor is already explored, therefore this means the intervention to an environment that hasn’t been studied thoroughly.
Mining can lead to habitat loss, fragmentation, or modification, disrupting the delicate balance of deep-sea ecosystems. Disruptions in microbial equilibrium within these environments could impact vital ecological activities.
The pollution caused by mining activities (afloor vehicle operations, dredging, explosives), through light, noise and vibrations that could stress the marine life and their life cycle. Since many deep-sea species are uncommon, long-lived, and reproduce slowly, and because polymetallic nodules—which need millions of years to grow to a usable size—provide critical habitat, scientists believe that mining could drive some species to extinction and that these ecosystems might take extremely long, possibly infinite, periods to recover. The social and governance effects, especially to coastal communities and indigenous populations, must not be overlooked.
Furthermore, the cumulative nature of these impacts remains uncertain, as the interactions between multiple factors are not yet well studied.
The push for a moratorium
The International Seabed Authority (ISA) – established by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea – has spent over 10 years developing regulations for overseeing seabed mineral exploitation in international waters.
As of July 2023, ISA has entered into 31 exploration contracts with 21 contractors for polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides, and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the deep seabed. These contracts cover 1.3 million square kilometers of the high seas beyond national jurisdiction.
Meanwhile, support is increasing for a moratorium on deep-sea mining to allow more time for scientific research on deep-sea ecosystems, to guarantee that activities do not harm the environment, and to ensure proper governance and social approval are in place before operations move forward. So far, 38 countries have announced their support for a moratorium in national and international levels.
Despite years of negotiations, the ISA hasn’t been able to agree on rules that will govern commercial mining operations in international waters. The latest round of talks ended in July 2025, and negotiations will resume in 2026.
Finally, it is crucial to underline the importance of carefully curated regulations backed up by thorough scientific research in order to proceed with any practice that can harm the environment in grave ways. Investing in other ways to meet the demand for minerals, such as scaling up recycling or alternative technologies such as sodium-ion batteries, could be a viable solution while waiting to gain important knowledge on deep-sea mining effects.
For further information:
https://www.wri.org/insights/deep-sea-mining-explained
https://earth.org/protecting-uncharted-ecosystems-why-we-need-a-deep-seabed-mining-moratorium/
https://deep-sea-conservation.org/solutions/no-deep-sea-mining/
